Questions and Answers

Crucial Topics

What are data types in JavaScript?

JavaScript has the following data types:

• Primitive Types: string, number, bigint, boolean, undefined, symbol, null
• Non-Primitive Types: Objects (including arrays, functions, custom objects)

Examples:

let str = "Hello";       // String
let num = 42;            // Number
let bool = true;         // Boolean
let bigInt = 123n;       // BigInt
let undef;               // Undefined
let sym = Symbol("foo"); // Symbol
let obj = { key: "value" }; // Object

---

What are primitive data types?

Primitive data types represent immutable values and are directly accessed:

• string
• number
• bigint
• boolean
• null
• undefined
• symbol

---

Difference between primitives vs objects?

Primitives	Objects
Immutable (cannot change value)	Mutable (properties can be updated/changed)
Stored directly in memory	Stored as references
Accessed by value	Accessed by reference

Example:

let x = 5; // Primitive
let obj = { key: "value" }; // Object

---

What is coercion in JavaScript?

Coercion refers to converting one data type into another:

• Implicit coercion: JavaScript automatically converts types.
• Explicit coercion: You manually convert data types.

Example:

console.log("5" + 2);       // Implicit -> "52"
console.log(Number("5") + 2); // Explicit -> 7

---

Do you know what Autoboxing in JS is?

Autoboxing is the automatic conversion of primitive types to their object equivalents so you can call methods on primitives like string or number.

Example:

let str = "Hello";
str.toUpperCase(); // Implicitly converted to String object

---

What is the difference between == and === operators?

==	===
Checks for equality after type coercion	Checks for equality without type coercion
May cause unintended comparison results	Strict comparison (preferred)

Example:

console.log(5 == "5");  // true (type coercion)
console.log(5 === "5"); // false (no coercion)

---

What is undefined data type?

undefined is a primitive value assigned to variables when they are declared but not initialized.

Example:

let foo;
console.log(foo); // undefined

---

What is null value?

null is a special value representing “empty” or “nonexistent”.

Example:

let foo = null;
console.log(foo); // null

---

What does isNaN function do?

Checks if a value is NaN (Not-a-Number). Returns true for values that can’t be converted to a number.

Example:

console.log(isNaN("abc")); // true
console.log(isNaN(123));   // false

---

What does NaN value mean?

NaN stands for “Not-a-Number”. It occurs when an operation results in a number that doesn’t have a valid representation.

Example:

console.log(0 / 0); // NaN

---

What is the difference between null and undefined?

null	undefined
Represents intentional absence of value	Variable declared but not assigned
Type: object	Type: undefined

---

How do you copy properties from one object to other?

Use Object.assign() or the spread operator:

let obj1 = { a: 1 };
let obj2 = { b: 2 };

Object.assign(obj2, obj1);
console.log(obj2); // { b: 2, a: 1 }

// Using Spread
let obj3 = { ...obj1, ...obj2 };
console.log(obj3); // { a: 1, b: 2 }

---

What are classes in ES6?

Classes are syntactic sugar for creating objects and working with prototypes.

Example:

class Person {
  constructor(name) {
    this.name = name;
  }
  greet() {
    console.log(`Hello, ${this.name}`);
  }
}
let person = new Person("John");
person.greet(); // Hello, John

---

Explain how prototypal inheritance works?

Objects can have a prototype which is another object. This prototype acts as a fallback for properties/methods.

Example:

let parent = { greet() { console.log("Hello"); } };
let child = Object.create(parent);
child.greet(); // Inherits from parent

---

How do you assign default values to variables?

Using the || operator or default parameter syntax.

function greet(name = "Guest") {
  console.log(`Hello, ${name}`);
}
greet(); // Hello, Guest

---

What is the difference between let, const and var?

var	let	const
Function-scoped	Block-scoped	Block-scoped
Can be redeclared	Cannot be redeclared	Cannot be reassigned
Hoisted	Hoisted	Hoisted, but no initialization

---

What are the differences between undeclared and undefined variables?

Undeclared	Undefined
Not defined in code	Defined, but no value assigned
Causes reference error	Does not cause an error

---

What are global variables?

Variables declared outside any function or block are accessible everywhere in your code.

Example:

let globalVar = "I am global";

---

What is Hoisting?

Hoisting is JavaScript’s behavior where functions and variable declarations are moved to the top of their scope.

Example:

console.log(x); // undefined
var x = 5;

---

What is scope in JavaScript?

Scope refers to the accessibility of variables/functions in different parts of the code. Types: global and local

---

What is closure in JavaScript?

Closure occurs when a function retains access to its enclosing scope, even after the outer function has returned.

Example:

function outer() {
  let secret = "secret";
  return function inner() {
    console.log(secret);
  };
}
const fn = outer();
fn(); // secret

---

How does closure implemented in JavaScript?

Closures are automatically created when a nested function retains access to variables from its parent scope.

---

What is the difference between Call, Apply and Bind?

• call: Calls a function, passing arguments one-by-one.
• apply: Calls a function, passing arguments as an array.
• bind: Creates a new function bound to a specific this.

function greet(age) {
  console.log(`${this.name} is ${age}`);
}
const obj = { name: "John" };
greet.call(obj, 25); // John is 25
greet.apply(obj, [25]); // John is 25
const bound = greet.bind(obj);
bound(25); // John is 25

---

What does ‘this loses context’ mean?

When this behavior gets modified or lost due to improper invocation, it doesn’t refer to the expected object.

---

What is JSON and its common operations?

• JSON: JavaScript Object Notation, a text format for data exchange.
• Operations:
  • JSON.stringify() → Convert object to JSON string
  • JSON.parse() → Convert JSON string to an object

Below are the answers to your questions written in Markdown format.

---

How do you parse JSON string?

You use JSON.parse() to convert a JSON string into a JavaScript object.

Example:

const jsonString = '{"name": "John", "age": 30}';
const obj = JSON.parse(jsonString);
console.log(obj.name); // John

---

What is the purpose of JSON stringify?

JSON.stringify() is used to convert a JavaScript object into a JSON string.

Example:

const obj = { name: "John", age: 30 };
const jsonString = JSON.stringify(obj);
console.log(jsonString); // {"name":"John","age":30}

---

What array methods do you know?

Common array methods:

• push()
• pop()
• shift()
• unshift()
• map()
• filter()
• reduce()
• forEach()
• find()
• indexOf()
• includes()
• slice()
• splice()
• sort()
• reverse()

---

What is the difference between Array.forEach() and Array.map()?

forEach	map
Iterates over elements	Iterates and returns a new array
Used for side effects	Used for transformations
Doesn’t return anything	Returns a new array

Example:

const arr = [1, 2, 3];
arr.forEach((num) => console.log(num * 2)); // Side effect
const mappedArr = arr.map((num) => num * 2); // [2, 4, 6]

---

What are the lambda or arrow functions?

Arrow functions are shorthand syntax for writing function expressions. They use => and don’t have their own this.

Example:

const add = (a, b) => a + b;
console.log(add(2, 3)); // 5

---

What is a pure function?

A pure function is:

1. Deterministic: Same input always yields the same output.
2. Side-effect-free: Does not change external states.

Example:

function add(a, b) {
  return a + b;
}

---

What is IIFE (Immediately Invoked Function Expression)?

An IIFE is a function that executes immediately after it’s declared.

Example:

(function () {
  console.log("IIFE executed!");
})();

---

What is a callback function?

A callback is a function passed as an argument to another function and executed later.

Example:

function greet(name, callback) {
  callback(name);
}
greet("John", (name) => console.log(`Hello, ${name}`)); // Hello, John

---

What is a promise?

A promise represents an asynchronous operation and its eventual result. It has three states:

• Pending
• Fulfilled
• Rejected

Example:

const promise = new Promise((resolve, reject) => {
  resolve("Success");
});

---

Why do we need a promise?

Promises simplify handling asynchronous operations by avoiding callback hell and providing cleaner code.

---

List all states of a promise?

1. Pending: Initial state, neither fulfilled nor rejected.
2. Fulfilled: Operation completed successfully.
3. Rejected: Operation failed.

---

Why do we need callbacks?

Callbacks are required to handle asynchronous operations like reading files, making network requests, or reacting to user events.

---

What is a callback hell?

Callback hell occurs when multiple nested callbacks make code difficult to understand and maintain.

Example:

step1(() => {
  step2(() => {
    step3(() => {
      // Hard to read and maintain
    });
  });
});

---

What is promise chaining?

Promise chaining involves chaining .then() blocks to handle multiple asynchronous operations sequentially.

Example:

fetchData()
  .then((data) => processData(data))
  .then((result) => displayResult(result))
  .catch((error) => console.error(error));

---

What is the purpose of using setTimeout?

setTimeout delays the execution of a function by a specified duration.

Example:

setTimeout(() => console.log("Hello after 1 second"), 1000);

---

What is the purpose of using setInterval?

setInterval repeatedly calls a function at specified intervals until cleared.

Example:

setInterval(() => console.log("Repeating every second"), 1000);

---

What is an event loop?

The event loop is a mechanism in JavaScript to handle asynchronous operations, ensuring non-blocking execution.

---

What is a call stack?

The call stack is a data structure used by JavaScript to track execution contexts.

Example:

function first() {
  second();
}
function second() {
  console.log("Second function");
}
first();
// Execution order tracked in the call stack

---

How do you validate an email in JavaScript?

Use a regular expression to validate an email format.

Example:

function validateEmail(email) {
  const regex = /^[^\s@]+@[^\s@]+\.[^\s@]+$/;
  return regex.test(email);
}
console.log(validateEmail("test@example.com")); // true

---

What are modules?

Modules are reusable pieces of code that can be imported/exported between files.

Example:

module.js

export const greet = () => console.log("Hello");

// main.js
import { greet } from './module.js';
greet(); // Hello

---

Why do you need modules?

Modules improve code organization, reusability, and maintainability by breaking up large files into smaller components.

---

What is a rest operator?

The rest operator (...) collects multiple elements into an array.

Example:

function sum(...numbers) {
  return numbers.reduce((a, b) => a + b);
}
console.log(sum(1, 2, 3, 4)); // 10

---

What is a spread operator?

The spread operator (...) expands arrays/objects into individual elements.

Example:

const arr = [1, 2, 3];
console.log([...arr, 4]); // [1, 2, 3, 4]

---

What is Node.js?

Node.js is a runtime environment for executing JavaScript outside of the browser, often used for server-side development.

---

What is the difference between window and document?

window	document
Represents the browser window	Represents the HTML document
Global object with properties like alert, location, etc.	Access HTML elements via DOM

Example:

console.log(window.location); // URL info
console.log(document.title);  // Title of the web page

Frequently asked questions

Explain what a Symbol is in JavaScript?

A Symbol is a unique and immutable primitive data type in JavaScript, introduced in ES6. It is typically used as a unique identifier for object properties.

Features:

• Each Symbol is unique, even if two symbols have the same description.
• Symbols are not enumerable in for...in loops.

Example:

const sym1 = Symbol("id");
const sym2 = Symbol("id");

console.log(sym1 === sym2); // false

const user = {
  [sym1]: "12345",
};
console.log(user[sym1]); // 12345

---

How do you check whether a string contains a substring?

Use the String.prototype.includes() method to check if a string contains a substring.

Example:

const str = "Hello, world!";
console.log(str.includes("world")); // true
console.log(str.includes("javascript")); // false

Other methods:

• String.prototype.indexOf() (returns -1 if not found):

console.log(str.indexOf("world") !== -1); // true

• RegExp with .test():

console.log(/world/.test(str)); // true

---

How do you check if a key exists in an object?

You can check if a key exists in an object using:

1. The in operator:

const obj = { key: "value" };
console.log("key" in obj); // true
console.log("otherKey" in obj); // false

2. The Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty() method:

console.log(obj.hasOwnProperty("key")); // true
console.log(obj.hasOwnProperty("otherKey")); // false

---

What is the main difference between Object.values and Object.entries method?

• Object.values(): Returns an array of the values of an object’s properties.
• Object.entries(): Returns an array of key-value pairs (2-item arrays) of an object’s properties.

Example:

const obj = { a: 1, b: 2, c: 3 };

console.log(Object.values(obj)); // [1, 2, 3]
console.log(Object.entries(obj)); // [["a", 1], ["b", 2], ["c", 3]]

---

How can you get the list of keys of any object?

Use Object.keys() to get an array of an object’s keys.

Example:

const obj = { a: 1, b: 2, c: 3 };
console.log(Object.keys(obj)); // ["a", "b", "c"]

---

What is a WeakSet?

A WeakSet is a collection of objects where:

1. Only objects can be added (primitive values are not allowed).
2. Objects are held weakly, meaning they can be garbage-collected if there are no other references to them.
3. It doesn’t have methods to iterate over its elements (forEach, size, etc.).

Example:

let obj = { name: "John" };
const weakset = new WeakSet();
weakset.add(obj);
console.log(weakset.has(obj)); // true

obj = null; // The object is now eligible for garbage collection

---

What are the differences between WeakSet and Set?

Set	WeakSet
Stores any type of data (objects and primitives).	Only stores objects.
Iterable with methods like forEach(), size.	Not iterable and does not have .size.
Strongly holds references to items.	Weakly holds references, eligible for garbage collection.
Example: new Set([1, 2, 3]).	Example: new WeakSet() (objects only).

---

What is a WeakMap?

A WeakMap is a collection of key-value pairs where:

1. Keys must be objects, not primitives.
2. Keys are weakly held (can be garbage-collected when no longer referenced).

Example:

let obj = { name: "John" };
const weakmap = new WeakMap();

weakmap.set(obj, "Details");
console.log(weakmap.get(obj)); // "Details"

obj = null; // Key is garbage collected

---

What are the differences between WeakMap and Map?

Map	WeakMap
Keys can be any type (objects or primitives).	Keys must be objects.
Iterable with forEach(), size.	Not iterable and has no .size.
Strongly holds key-value pairs.	Weakly holds keys, eligible for garbage collection.
Example: new Map([[1, "a"], [2, "b"]]).	Example: new WeakMap() (objects as keys).

---

What is the difference between __proto__ and prototype?

• __proto__: Refers to the prototype of a specific object.
• prototype: Refers to the prototype property of a function, used for inheritance.

Example:

function Person(name) {
  this.name = name;
}
const john = new Person("John");

console.log(john.__proto__ === Person.prototype); // true
console.log(typeof Person.prototype); // object

---

What are the problems with global variables?

1. Namespace pollution: If multiple scripts use the same global variable name, they can overwrite each other.
2. Difficulty in debugging: Changes to global variables are hard to track.
3. Increased coupling: Code relying on globals is harder to reuse.
4. Memory leaks: Global variables persist for the lifetime of the program.

---

What is the Funarg problem?

The Funarg (Function Argument) problem refers to the issues that arise when:

• A function is passed as an argument to another function.
• JavaScript has to decide which scope the function remembers when executed.

This can happen in closures, causing confusion over which variables/functions are retained.

---

How does this work in arrow functions?

Arrow functions do not have their own this. Instead, they inherit this from their outer (lexical) scope.

Example:

function Person(name) {
  this.name = name;
  this.greet = () => console.log(`Hello, ${this.name}`);
}
const person = new Person("John");
person.greet(); // Hello, John

In the example above, this refers to the Person object due to lexical scope.

---

Why do we need JSON?

JSON (JavaScript Object Notation) is a lightweight data-interchange format. It’s needed because:

1. It provides a standard way to exchange data between server and client.
2. It is easy to parse and generate in almost all programming languages.
3. It is lightweight and human-readable compared to XML or other formats.

Example Usage:

• Fetching data from an API and parsing it as an object with JSON.parse().
• Sending data to a server in string format using JSON.stringify().

---

What is the purpose of the array slice() method?

The slice() method is used to extract a portion of an array into a new array, without modifying the original array.

Syntax:

array.slice(startIndex, endIndex);

• startIndex: Starting index (inclusive).
• endIndex: Ending index (exclusive).

Example:

const arr = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
const sliceArr = arr.slice(1, 4); // [2, 3, 4]
console.log(arr); // Original array remains unchanged: [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

---

What is the purpose of the array splice() method?

The splice() method is used to add, remove, or replace elements in an array. It modifies the original array.

Syntax:

array.splice(startIndex, deleteCount, item1, item2, ...);

• startIndex: Index to start changing the array.
• deleteCount: Number of elements to remove.
• item1, item2, …: Elements to add.

Example:

const arr = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
arr.splice(1, 2, "a", "b"); // [2, 3] removed, replaced with "a", "b"
console.log(arr); // [1, "a", "b", 4, 5]

---

List array methods that mutate the source array

These array methods modify the original array:

1. splice()
2. push()
3. pop()
4. shift()
5. unshift()
6. reverse()
7. sort()
8. fill()

---

List array methods that return a new array

These methods do not modify the original array and return a new array:

1. slice()
2. map()
3. filter()
4. concat()
5. reduce() (indirectly, by returning any object/array)
6. flat()
7. flatMap()

---

What is a first-class function?

Functions in JavaScript are first-class citizens, meaning:

• They can be assigned to variables, passed as arguments, and returned from other functions.

Example:

const greet = () => console.log("Hello");
const execute = (fn) => fn();
execute(greet); // Hello

---

What is a first-order function?

A first-order function is a function that does not take other functions as arguments or returns functions.

Example:

function add(a, b) {
  return a + b;
}

---

What is a higher-order function?

A higher-order function is a function that:

1. Takes another function as an argument, or
2. Returns another function.

Example:

function multiplier(factor) {
  return (x) => x * factor;
}

const double = multiplier(2);
console.log(double(5)); // 10

---

What is a unary function?

A unary function is a function that takes exactly one argument.

Example:

const square = (x) => x ** 2;
console.log(square(4)); // 16

---

What is currying?

Currying is a technique where a function takes one argument at a time and returns another function expecting the next argument.

Example:

function add(a) {
  return (b) => a + b;
}
console.log(add(2)(3)); // 5

---

What is an anonymous function?

An anonymous function is a function without a name. It is often used in places where the name is not required, such as callbacks.

Example:

const arr = [1, 2, 3];
arr.forEach(function (num) {
  console.log(num);
});

---

What does Promise.all() do?

Promise.all() accepts an array of promises and returns a single promise that:

1. Resolves: When all promises in the array are resolved.
2. Rejects: If any promise in the array fails.

Example:

const promise1 = Promise.resolve("A");
const promise2 = Promise.resolve("B");
Promise.all([promise1, promise2]).then((results) => console.log(results)); // ["A", "B"]

---

What is the difference between Promise.all and Promise.allSettled?

Promise.all	Promise.allSettled
Resolves once all promises are fulfilled.	Resolves after all promises are settled (fulfilled or rejected).
Rejects if any promise fails.	Does not reject, but returns the status of each promise.
Example: Results only for successful promises.	Example: Includes status for successful and failed promises.

Example:

Promise.allSettled([
  Promise.resolve("A"),
  Promise.reject("Error"),
]).then((results) => console.log(results));

Output:

[
  { status: "fulfilled", value: "A" },
  { status: "rejected", reason: "Error" }
]

---

What is the purpose of Promise.race()?

Promise.race() returns a promise which settles (fulfills or rejects) as soon as any promise in the array settles.

Example:

const promise1 = new Promise((resolve) => setTimeout(resolve, 100, "A"));
const promise2 = new Promise((resolve) => setTimeout(resolve, 200, "B"));

Promise.race([promise1, promise2]).then((result) => console.log(result)); // "A"

---

What is strict mode in JavaScript?

"use strict"; enforces stricter parsing and error handling in JavaScript:

• Prevents accidental global variables.
• Disallows duplicate parameter names.
• Disables this referring to window in the global scope.

Example:

"use strict";
x = 10; // ReferenceError: x is not defined

---

What are PWAs?

Progressive Web Apps (PWAs) are web applications with modern capabilities that:

1. Work offline using service workers.
2. Are installable (appear like native apps).
3. Provide app-like interactions with responsive design.

---

What is memoization?

Memoization is an optimization technique where results of expensive function calls are cached to avoid redundant computations.

Example:

function memoize(fn) {
  const cache = {};
  return (arg) => cache[arg] || (cache[arg] = fn(arg));
}

const factorial = memoize((n) => (n <= 1 ? 1 : n * factorial(n - 1)));
console.log(factorial(5)); // Returns cached results

---

How do you encode a URL?

Use encodeURIComponent() for encoding component-specific parts of a URL.

Example:

const url = "example.com?name=John Doe";
console.log(encodeURIComponent(url)); // example.com%3Fname%3DJohn%20Doe

---

How do you decode a URL?

Use decodeURIComponent() for decoding component-specific parts of a URL.

Example:

const encodedUrl = "example.com%3Fname%3DJohn%20Doe";
console.log(decodeURIComponent(encodedUrl)); // example.com?name=John Doe

---

How do you get the current URL with JavaScript?

Use window.location.href.

Example:

console.log(window.location.href); // Returns the full current URL

---

What is a Fetch API?

Fetch API is a modern interface for making HTTP requests.

• Returns a Promise.
• Provides cleaner and consistent syntax compared to XMLHttpRequest.

Example:

fetch("https://api.example.com")
  .then((response) => response.json())
  .then((data) => console.log(data))
  .catch((error) => console.error("Error:", error));

---

How to open a two-way interactive session between browser and server?

Use WebSockets to open a two-way communication channel between browser and server.

Example:

const socket = new WebSocket("ws://example.com/socket");
socket.onopen = () => console.log("Connection opened");
socket.onmessage = (event) => console.log("Message:", event.data);
socket.send("Hello Server!");

---

How to abort an async operation?

Use the AbortController to cancel fetch() or other async operations.

Example:

const controller = new AbortController();
const signal = controller.signal;

fetch("https://api.example.com", { signal })
  .then((response) => response.json())
  .then((data) => console.log(data))
  .catch((err) => console.log("Fetch aborted"));

controller.abort(); // Cancels the fetch request

Good to know areas

How do you create an object with prototype?

You can create an object with a specific prototype using either:

1. Object.create()
2. Prototype assignment in constructor functions or ES6 classes

Using Object.create():

const parentObj = {
  greet() {
    console.log("Hello from Parent!");
  },
};

const childObj = Object.create(parentObj);
childObj.greet(); // Hello from Parent!

Using Constructor Functions:

function Parent() {
  this.name = "Parent";
}
Parent.prototype.greet = function () {
  console.log("Hello!");
};

const child = new Parent();
child.greet(); // Hello!

---

What is a proxy object?

A proxy object in JavaScript is created using the Proxy constructor, which allows you to redefine or intercept default operations (e.g., property access, assignment).

Syntax:

const proxy = new Proxy(targetObject, handlerObject);

Example:

const target = { name: "John" };
const handler = {
  get: (obj, prop) => {
    return prop in obj ? obj[prop] : "Property not found";
  },
};

const proxy = new Proxy(target, handler);
console.log(proxy.name); // "John"
console.log(proxy.age); // "Property not found"

---

How do you define JSON arrays?

JSON arrays are similar to JavaScript arrays, except their values are structured as JSON objects.

Example:

[
  { "id": 1, "name": "John" },
  { "id": 2, "name": "Jane" },
  { "id": 3, "name": "Doe" }
]

You can access the elements programmatically:

const jsonArray = [
  { id: 1, name: "John" },
  { id: 2, name: "Jane" },
];
console.log(jsonArray[1].name); // "Jane"

---

What is Tree Shaking?

Tree shaking is a technique used by JavaScript bundlers like Webpack to optimize code by removing unused modules or exports.

• It relies on ES6 module syntax (import/export).
• Reduces the final bundle size.

Example:

utils.js

export const usedFunction = () => {};
export const unusedFunction = () => {};

When unusedFunction isn’t imported elsewhere in the code, tree shaking removes it from the final bundle.

---

How do you detect JavaScript disabled on a page?

You can detect JavaScript is disabled by including a <noscript> tag, which renders content if JavaScript is disabled.

Example:

<noscript>
  <p>JavaScript is disabled. Please enable JavaScript for full functionality.</p>
</noscript>

Alternatively, you can use server-side methods to display alternate content if JavaScript is disabled.

---

How do you detect a mobile browser?

You can detect a mobile browser by checking the navigator.userAgent string for mobile-specific identifiers.

Example:

function isMobileBrowser() {
  const userAgent = navigator.userAgent || navigator.vendor || window.opera;
  return /android|iphone|ipad|mobile/i.test(userAgent);
}

console.log(isMobileBrowser()); // true or false

---

How can we draw something in the browser?

You can draw shapes, graphics, or text using the <canvas> element and its 2D context.

Example: Drawing on Canvas:

<canvas id="myCanvas" width="200" height="100"></canvas>
<script>
  const canvas = document.getElementById("myCanvas");
  const ctx = canvas.getContext("2d");

  // Draw a rectangle
  ctx.fillStyle = "blue";
  ctx.fillRect(10, 10, 150, 50);

  // Draw a circle
  ctx.beginPath();
  ctx.arc(75, 75, 50, 0, Math.PI * 2);
  ctx.fillStyle = "red";
  ctx.fill();
</script>

---

How to copy value to the clipboard?

You can use navigator.clipboard.writeText(), or older hacks that involve a hidden <textarea>.

Modern Approach (Clipboard API):

navigator.clipboard.writeText("Hello World").then(() => {
  console.log("Copied to clipboard!");
});

Fallback (Textarea Method):

function copyToClipboard(text) {
  const textarea = document.createElement("textarea");
  textarea.value = text;
  document.body.appendChild(textarea);
  textarea.select();
  document.execCommand("copy");
  document.body.removeChild(textarea);
}
copyToClipboard("Hello World");

---

How to read value from the clipboard?

You can use navigator.clipboard.readText().

Example:

navigator.clipboard.readText().then((text) => {
  console.log("Clipboard content:", text);
});

Ensure you have proper permissions for clipboard access in the user’s browser.